August eJournal

Cultural Issues in e-Learning
by Gemma Belga, Oyundari Nyamsuren, Malinda Charles Bandara Kumarasinha, Huong Le Thi Lan and Christina Maureen Salang

I. Introduction

It is believed that e-Learning broadens access to education. In the modern global learning environment e-learning has become a facilitator in organization development through knowledge sharing. Often educators hear about its positive effects in a certain group of population and wonder if it would be useful in their own setting. However, certain issues arise when e-Learning is implemented across different countries and cultures. This article will discuss about several cultural issues in e-Learning in Asian countries such as the Philippines, Mongolia, Sri Lanka and Vietnam.

a. Define e-Learning

Electronic learning (or E-Learning or e-Learning) is a term for all types of technology-enhanced learning (TEL), where technology is used to support the learning process. Often the medium of instruction is through computer technology, particularly involving digital technologies. E-learning has been defined as "pedagogy empowered by digital technology". In some instances, no face- to- face interaction takes place. E-learning is used interchangeably in a wide variety of contexts. In companies, it refers to the strategies that use the company network to deliver training courses to employees. It is defined as a planned teaching/learning experience that uses a wide spectrum of technologies, mainly Internet or computer-based, to reach learners. Lately in most universities, e-learning is used to define a specific mode to attend a course or programmes of study where the students rarely, if ever, attend face-to-face for on-campus access to educational facilities, because they study online.

It is also defined as technologically-supported learning, which includes the use of electronic media such as the Internet, personal computers, phone bridging, audio and videotape, video teleconferencing, satellite broadcast, mobile phones, personal digital assistants, and other related technologies to enhance teaching and learning.

E-Learning lessons are generally designed to guide students through information or to help students perform in specific tasks. Information based e-Learning content communicates information to the student. Examples include content that distributes the history or facts related to a service, company, or product. In information-based content, there is no specific skill to be learned. In performance-based content, the lessons build off of a procedural skill in which the student is expected to increase proficiency.

b. Define culture

According to Fred Luthans [1989] culture consist of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups including their embodiment of artifacts.

According to D’Iribarne culture is the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another. The core elements identified in culture are values. D’Iribarne identifies values as “broad tendencies to prefer certain state of affairs over others. Relationships between people in a society are affected by the values that form part of the collective programming of people’s minds in that society. So management is subject to cultural values.

According to Geert Hofstede [2000] cultural values defer among society, but within a society they are remarkably stay over time. Values are resilient against technological influences. Technology keep changing but it normally affects only practices of individuals and organizations, not the underline values. That is why he says “People in different countries use the same computer programs but the purpose to which they put them vary according to the programming of their minds, not of their computers.”

In his cross-organizational studies, Hofstede has identified that organizational participants’ values differed more according nationality, age and education than according to their membership of the organization.

Terpstra and Sarathy [2000] have identified the key cultural drivers as language, religion, values and attitude, aesthetics, law and politics, technology and material cultures, education and social organization [1].



A cultural framework – Tersptra and Sarathy (2000)


c. Define cultural issues in relation to e-Learning

The adoption of educational and training to multi-cultural settings requires a new paradigm that includes an understanding of the deeper psychology of culture and the unique differences culture brings to a global workplace. There is a need for research on culture and its impact on information seeking, user interface design, usability, interactivity, access, delivery, learning style, and content. Various cultural elements are enumerated and explained as:

i. Language

Language is a critical issue in global e-learning. Language is one of the most important constraints on portability of educational software. Unless instructors and learners understand the language, the program has no value. It is not just a matter of substituting words. One has to be aware of the meaning, the inferences and connotations. The most computer-related material such as manuals, keyboards, software is designed for English speakers and lack features that add symbols, punctuation and accents easily. Even though keyboards have been designed for some languages, this does not solve the problem. Testing and development would constantly require the developers to change keyboards and software environments. This issue cannot be resolved unless there is an international standards effort in the area of technological innovations. One solution to this may be to use visual programming methods and icons to represent various features of the program; however, even icons are sometimes culturally dependent. The challenge is how to turn English-language training materials into culturally sensitive, intellectually stimulating, knowledge- and skill-transferring materials in a different language. Blended e-learning can bring solutions with local instructors who can facilitate learning with proper translation of the learning materials.

ii. Social, Political, Economical, and Religious Issues

Traditions, political, economical, and values all play an important part in every society. A society's physical and geographical locations may further promote the extent to which these socio-cultural factors become significant in educational matters. National and cultural identities play an important role in interaction with computer-based learning materials. If people from both cultures are to identify with the software, the content should be carefully written so that there are no clashes of cultural identity. Dunbar (1991) stated that technology is encoded with the characteristics of the culture that developed it.

For example, individualistic values are implicit in software developed in the United States, whereas these techniques may be totally inappropriate for Arabic students, because they are extremely heteronymous by nature. Religion and politics both are sensitive issues that instructors and instructional designers who adapt global e-learning, should be mindful of. In Asia, religion, history, economics, class systems, and politics have a deep impact on how life and work issues are perceived and programmed. In addition, political relationships between countries play an important role in cooperation on the academic front. Some countries do not trade with others, and may refuse to buy computers or software made in certain countries based on political ideology. For example, there is a ban on trade between Israel and some Arabic and Islamic countries.

The program of a blended e-learning model comes into picture in which students are locally taught by instructors in face to face settings, using web based teaching materials and hands on labs. The local instructors make the Academy program relevant and accessible to students because they understand the cultural preferences (language, social, political, and religious issues).

iii. Technical Issues

It is believed that being aware of cultural differences in technology can help instructional designers and instructors design more culturally sensitive learning materials. Hardware and software selection is one of the most critical factors affecting portability of educational software, as well as authoring languages which allow developers to easily change screens that they have developed, whereas programming languages are a little more complicated to manipulate. Countries have various computer systems that are popular in the school system. In addition, access to technology is an important factor. The gap between the use of learning technology and their application in the social reality of the culture must be reduced. It is hard to imagine teaching learners to surf the web and collaboration using email or chatting without providing them access to the internet. Blended e-learning plays an important role with access to technology in which instructors can facilitate, provide, and control the provision and access to technology for learners.

d. Research on the cultural impact on e-learning

A study has been carried out by Steve Downey, Rose Mary, Tim Wenling and Andrew Wadsworth of University of Illinois (2003) to measure the relationship between national culture and usability of an e-learning system by using Hofstede’s cultural dimensions and Nielson’s usability attribute. The study revealed that high uncertainty avoidance cultures found the e learning system more frustrated. The study also revealed that individuals from cultures with low power distance rated the e learning system usability higher than individuals from high power distance cultures. The research was guided by the following research questions.

• What is the relationship between power distance and the usability (learnability, error rate, and user’s satisfaction) of an e-learning system?
• What is the relationship between individualism and collectivism and usability (learnability, error rate, and user’s satisfaction) of an e-Learning system?
• What is the relationship between femininity /masculinity and the usability (learnability, error rate, and user’s satisfaction) of an e-Learning system?
• What is the relationship between uncertainty avoidance and the usability (learnability, error rate, and user’s satisfaction) of an e-learning system?

The population of this study was composed of 30 attendees in an international workshop on training improvement held in Penang, Malaysia. The attendees were from diverse cultural backgrounds. But their interest is mainly on training and instructional delivery.

The findings indicated that organizations conducting e-learning operations in cultures where power-centric, collectivist and change accepting societies exist must give consideration on some logistics. First, trainers need to consider the level of leadership expected by learners. Learners from cultures where strong authority figures are common will expect greater leadership and guidance from their instructors. As a result training might take a more traditional teacher centered approach, whereas individuals from other cultures may desire a more student-centered approach. Another factor to consider is the level of group interaction and support offered to students. Training conducted in strong collectivist cultures might employ strategies where group work collaboration and socially oriented approaches are more prevalent. Conversely training and e-learning activities in more individualistic societies might give the learners greater freedom in terms of creativity and expression of knowledge gained. Or possibly employ more competitive learning environments (i.e. normative testing and grading practices).

In today’s increasingly global market, many e-learning systems designers are faced with the task of ensuring that their systems are equally as usable in foreign countries as in the United States. Given the impact that culture has on people’s behavior, truly functional global e-learning systems should reflect the cultural orientation of its users and not just be a translation of an American Interface.

II. Cultural issues related to e-Learning per country

a. Philippines

E-learning acknowledges other technological tools, aside from the usual association with the Internet or web-based applications. In the Philippines, it is common knowledge that there is only a small number of Filipinos who have access to the internet and its services.

The Advanced Science & Technology Institute is the research and development organization of the Philippine government, under the Department of Science & Technology (DOST) that is mandated to pursue R&D in the advanced fields of Microelectronics and Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). They incorporate technical teams whose mission is to acquire, promote, and transfer knowledge and skills pertaining to wireless mobile technologies.

They work with an aim to contribute to the field of e-learning by supporting the concept of integrating e-learning in education and industry. Part of its plan is to encourage collaborative efforts in developing strategies and distributing e-learning tools that focus on education in all levels. It still needs the necessary investment capacity in developing e-learning applications as it still lags far behind in the use of the new information and communication technologies. E-learning should be designed to enable Philippines to catch up by intensifying its efforts. It implementations and extension into education and training should include particular guidelines and components.

This initiative has four components:
i. to equip schools with multimedia computers,
ii. to train Filipino teachers in digital technologies,
iii. to develop Philippines educational services and software,
iv. and to speed up the networking of schools and teachers.

Most of the resources to be mobilized will be national, but they should be backed by all the adequate community instruments (the education, training and youth programmes for innovative actions and exchange of good practice.

b. Mongolia

IT development in Mongolia

The Mongolian Government established the Information and Communications Technology Authority (ICTA) in 2004. The ICTA initiated and developed the “E-Mongolia” program, which was approved by the Government of Mongolia in June, 2005. The vision of E-Mongolia program is to establish “the information society and the foundation for knowledge-based society in Mongolia by enhancing extensive application of ICT in all society sectors”. It is targeted to make Mongolia in top 10 ICT developed countries in Asia by 2012.

The “E-Mongolia” program has 4 major components:
i. Policy, legal and regulatory framework
ii. Telecommunications and information infrastructure
iii. Utilization of ICTs and governance and other applications
iv. Developing human resources.

Implications of the e-Mongolia program:
i. Designing and implementing new businesses such as e-Commerce, e-Tax, e-Custom, e-Payments, e-Procurement, e-Health, and e-Learning
ii. Establishment of an electronic system to expand civil participations
iii. Establishment of a unified Information exchange network among Government agencies
iv. Requirement for the leadership at all levels of e-Government execution
v. Requirement for legislating laws and regulations on ICT
vi. Need to build high speed transmission networks throughout Mongolia
vii. Establishment of nation-wide Digital Community Centers for business
viii. Reduction of the Internet connection fees

In 2005, the parliament of Mongolia amended the laws on custom tax-free for computer and its accessories and VAT exception for software products. These regulations supported the local software industry and supply of computers became more affordable. The low-cost computer program allowed low-income families to purchase personal computers and use these computers to gain additional income and self education. The level of computerization in Mongolia varies within social groups, incomes, and regions. The major constraints for the use of computers are the following: (a) low computer literacy (b) limited Mongolian content in Internet (c) English language barriers and (d) limited business opportunities.


IT infrastructure development in Mongolia

There are several sub programs are running for expediting the development and provision of equitable IT infrastructure service and developing an effective IT network for education at a reasonable price.
i. Program on development of ICT infrastructure
ii. “Internet for each households” program
iii. “Computerization of all” program
iv. “One child-one computer” program

Under the program on development of ICT infrastructure, the information and communication backbone network of Mongolia has been fully converted to digital in 2007. Now in province center level, the backbone network capacity is considered as same as in UB. According to the strategic plan of ICTA, by 2010 all soums (villages) will be connected through high speed digital links.

The aim of “One child-one computer” program is to provide complete IT infrastructure in every school in order to move into e-school.

There are 4 TV channels, and 8 FM stations broadcasted in the air through the satellite system. However, for the time being, only 3 TV stations are on air. The Education TV is licensed for educational purpose. The ICTA is planning to upgrade its current transmission system of TV broadcasting, and to make the system for 8-10 TV channels broadcasting by 2009.

The Mongolian Internet Service Provider Association (MISPA) introduced the Affordable Internet Program or “1 Tugrug Internet campaign” for dial-up connection and the cost of basic Internet had been lowered at night time. Some of major operators such as Mongolia Telecom, Mobicom Corporation and Skytel mobile companies contributed this program for one year. Recently, these companies are introducing high-speed internet.

Several Wi-Fi hot spots were established in the dense populated districts of Ulaanbaatar City and Internet service is free of charge. Because of these programs, the service fee for ADSL decreased by 50 per cent. The price of internet leased line was reduced 5 times, and the price per flow of 1Mb/s will be approximately 400 USD (Table 1). Ulaanbaatar Electricity Distribution Company is also providing 20 percent discount electricity service for poor people, especially vulnerable households from April 2005.

Mongolia needs e-learning in order to:

i. Establish new system using ICT to supply nationwide and lifelong learning
ii. Give opportunities to them who study adapting their knowledge level and professional skills
iii. Decrease costs related to the traditional education, especially in higher education
iv. Provide convenient and quality educational services to the mass in distance in depending on geographical situation and time zone.
v. Provide foreign exchange programs on different level
vi. Possibilities of online payment

According to the survey by Mongolian e-Knowledge NGO, which is a non for profit, non-government organization, e-Learning needs are greater among private companies and universities followed by NGOs (Fig.1). This survey stated that there are several obstacles in implementing eLearning within institutions (Fig. 2).



E-Learning initiatives in Mongolia

In order to support e-learning in the country, National Distance Education Program was issued by the Mongolian Government in 2002. The "Internet based distance education" or “e-Learning Mongolia” project was commenced to encourage development of e-learning in the country. The aim of the project is to initiate selected Mongolian institutions into the processes of research, development and experimentation with web-based instruction methods and technologies for distance education. The project investigated web-based instructional technologies, pedagogical methods and organizational solutions for distance education in Mongolia and helped build capacities so that more technology choices for distance education are available to the country for implementing its nation-wide distance education system. A parallel aim of this project is to encourage and facilitate the educational authority within the country to formulate a vision and strategic plan for technology based distance education, within the national education policy framework. The project was funded by International Development Research Centre of Canada. This project is aimed at benefiting the following categories of people in Mongolia:

i. People learning English, gender education, Information Technology
ii. Grade five to ten school children
iii. Pupils passing math and English based entrance exams
iv. Self-learners on above mentioned fields
v. School dropped children and others

By 2009 following organizations and universities have initiated e-learning education in Mongolia:

Government organizations
o Ministry of Education, Culture and Sciences
o Non-formal and Distance education center
o Academy of Management
o National health development center

Universities
o Mongolian University of Sciences and Technology (MUST)
o Mongolian University of Health Sciences (MUHS)
o National University of Mongolia (NUM)
o Mongolian State University of Education (MSUE)

Non-governmental organizations
o Mongolian e-Knowledge NGO

International organizations
o Business companies
o Individuals

The Mongolian Government encourages universities to establish open universities/ distance education institutes, e-schools and create a network of such institutions to create borderless education system through Mongolia. Mongolian Universities are taking main responsibilities to use Information and Communication Technology in education.

c. Sri Lanka

Language and Religion

Sri Lanka has a multi-ethnic population. According to the human development report published by the UNDP[2002], the ethnic composition is: Sinhalese (74 percent), Tamils of Sri Lankan origin (12 percent), Tamils of Indian origin (6 percent), Moors (7 percent), and others (1 percent). The religious composition is: Buddhists (69 percent), Hindus (15 percent), Christians (8 percent), and Muslims (8 percent). Only 21.5 percent of the populations reside in urban areas, while 72.2 percent live in rural areas and 6.3 percent in estates.[1] Both Sinhala and Tamil are national languages. English too is widely used for official and business purposes. However, less than 2 percent have the functional literacy in English.

Education

“In accordance with long-held traditions, Sri Lanka has always nurtured an advanced educational system, recognizing the importance of developing human Capital “(UNDP, 2002) The overall literacy rate of the country is 91.6 percent. 94 percent for men and 89 percent for women (Mahbub ul haq Human Development Center, 2000). The school enrolment ratio of around 90 percent is also higher than most developing countries. Both these factors place Sri Lanka on par with developed countries. In 1996/97, 20.7 percent of the population had had some sort of tertiary education while about 35 percent had completed secondary schooling and another 35 percent primary schooling. (Mahbub ul- haq Human Development Center, 2000).
The percentage of the population without any formal education was only 8.6 percent – a sharp decrease from 41.8 percent in 1953 (Central Bank, 2002b). The percentages of educational attainment in selected provinces are given.

Sri Lankan culture is influenced by the philosophical principals of the key thinkers, despite the ideological changes with open economy. The culture in Sri Lanka strongly respects a good education; degrees and diplomas enhance a virtuous education. (UNDP, 2002) Sri Lankan value orientation religious values, materialism and post materialism. Religious values see self less dedication to the well being of society and mankind. Materialism values see the pursuit of immediate rewards and physical happenings. Post materialism values see a way of life where the importance is more on harmony between people and nature. Whichever value a student subscribes to education is highly regarded.

Aesthetics

There are a series of cross-cultural differences in ways of using media for communication between western and Asian cultures. For example, Western design web sites and Asian design web site differ significantly (Hedberg and Brown, 2002).

The aesthetics of Sri Lankan art may hold the key to web design that suits Asian learners. Cultural understanding of colour and images could also lead to confusion and communication. In logos and symbols associated in marketing may not carry the same impact to the Asian learners as they do with their western counter parts. Local branding and images need to be consider when constructing case study or using examples.

Law and Politics

The legal system in Sri Lanka is weak compared to the west and more develop countries in Asia. [UNIFEM, 2000]

For example, Sri Lanka currently has no laws and regulations to prevent software piracy. Pirated software copies are used without any restriction or hesitation, not only by individuals but also by the vast majority of private and public sector institutions including the judiciary. No comprehensive studies have been conducted to estimate the prevalence of pirated software in Sri Lanka, but a ‘guesstimate’ by the authors of Regional Human Development Report [2002] places it around 95 percent of all software used.

Sri Lanka has well defined policies and laws pertaining to intellectual property. The Code of Intellectual Property Act No. 52 of 1979 embodies legislation relating to copyright, industrial design, patents, trademarks, trade names and unfair competition. Although this act was amended in 2000 to cover software products, it has so far never been successfully used to safeguard the interests of a software developer. The absence of an effective legal framework to prevent software piracy has resulted in making Sri Lanka a massive open market for illegally copied software products and entertainment media.

Internet user profile

Due to the lack of data, it is difficult to map out ICT user profiles in Sri Lanka. The Internet users seem to be mainly urban residents and corporations who can afford the high connection charges and the necessary computer facilities for access. One study of 560 Internet users in Sri Lanka (Shrestha & Amarasinghe, 2001) yielded the following facts:
71 percent of respondents were male, and 17 percent were female (while12 percent did not indicate their gender).

The largest number of Internet users fell under the 26–35 years age group (23 percent), followed by the 36–45 years group (21 percent) and the 19–25 years group (19 percent). Almost 6 percent of the users were 18 years or younger, while 8 percent were over 56 years. More than a third of users had completed at least a basic degree; 13 percent were still engaged in full-time studies. Direct satellite-based service usage in Sri Lanka is still extremely low. Although there were plans to establish island-wide cable TV networks, nothing has materialized thus far.

Social Organization

Preferences of Sri Lankan individuals/group may differ from that of the west. For example preferred learning style and learning environment may differ significantly. However, much research has not been carried on this area.

d. Vietnam

In Vietnam, information technology (IT) is widely applied in various fields. IT is considered to be one of the most important factors in economic development, social security and defense. There is a considerable demand to improve the speed, quality and cost-effectiveness of Internet connection. The improvement of the IT industry is also being sought, because it is key to the country’s economic growth and development.

It was at the start of the new millennium when there was increasing interest in e-learning research in Vietnam. Recent conferences, workshops on information technology and education have mentioned many problems with e-learning in Vietnam. Some institutions have started implementation of software support and training for e-learning, such as: University of Technology - National University of Hanoi, Institute of IT - National University of Hanoi, University of Technology Hanoi. Most recently, the Informatics Center Ministry of Education and Training has implemented an e-learning portal to provide updates on e-learning locally and in the international arena. In addition, some software companies in Vietnam have been on the market some support product training. Although these products are not yet great product, packaging is complete but has contributed to the initial development E-Learning in Vietnam.

Vietnam has joined the network E-Learning Asia (Asia E-learning Network - www.asia-elearning.net) with the participation of the Ministry of Education & Training, Ministry of Science - Technology, University Polytechnic, the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications.

III. Summary/Conclusion

Indeed, culture influences the extent of use and practice of e-learning. It is seen from the experiences of the countries that the following elements of culture: language, education, politics, religion, values and attitudes are factors that can make or break the development of e-learning. There is considerable demand for literacy in the English language as well as in information and communication technologies in order to effectively use existing online content. Likewise, there is also demand for more culturally-sensitive e-learning content and activities.

Learning truly integrates into every aspect of our lives, from daily household chores to arts and culture. Learning and living, it could be said, will eventually merge. The challenge will not be in how to learn, but in how to use learning to create something more, to communicate.

As we approach the halfway mark of the new millennium's first decade, the nature of the Internet, and just as importantly, the people using the Internet, has begun to change. These changes are sweeping across entire industries as a whole and are not unique to education; indeed, in many ways education has lagged behind some of these trends and is just beginning to feel their wake.

IV. References

Berge, Z.L.(1998). ‘Conceptual frameworks in distance training and education.’

Central Bank of Sri Lanka, [2003] ‘Annual Report 2002’
Council for Information Technology (CINTEC) web site, [2006],http://www.cintec.lk
D’Iribarne, (1997) 'The Usefulness of an Ethnographic Approach to the International Comparison of Organizations, 'International Studies of Management and Organization vol26 no.4,30-47.

Dawney, Cordova, Wentling and Wadsworth,(2004) ‘ The relationship between national culture and the usability of an e-learning system.’

Firdhouse, M. F. M., & G. V. Dias, [1996] ‘The introduction of Internet in Sri
Lanka’, in proceedings of the 15th National Computer Conference, Colombo, Computer Society of Sri Lanka, 1996

Government of Sri Lanka, (2002) ‘Connecting to growth: Sri Lanka’s Poverty
Reduction Strategy’

Gunawardene & Wattegama (2003) 'Regional Human Development Report,'Regional Bureau for Asia and the Pacific-UNDP.

Hofstede, G (1996) 'Cultures and organizations: software of the mind,'McGraw-Hill.

Hofstede, G. (1984) ‘Culture’s consequences: international in work-related values, Sage.’

Hofstede, G (1994) ‘The business of international business culture,’ International Business Review, 3 (1).’

Regional Human Development Report,'Regional Bureau for Asia and the Pacific-UNDP.

Terpstra, V.and Sarathy, R.(2000)'International Marketing' Dryden Press, 8th Edn.

Wikramanayake, G.N (2003) 'Changes in Teaching and Learning Styles,'Computer Society of Sri Lanka.

E-Mongolia National Program for 2005-2012, Information Communication Technology Authority, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, 2005.

Current status of ICT development in Mongolia.: Infocon. World Public sector report – 2005, UNDP, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

Batsuren Amgalanbat, The infrastructure and policy of Mongolian e-learning and distance learning

Tsetseg-Ulzii Yadamsuren, Mongolian e-Knowledge campus, “Needs assessment for eLearning development in Mongolia

Baigaltugs, S. Current status of e-learning in Mongolia, presentation for e-MUST conference, 2008, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

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